Series: Who is an expert?
Nowadays there is one for every conceivable topic and field: the expert. But what exactly is an expert? Who decides whether someone is an expert or not? And who monitors the experts involved in the project of the century of deep geological disposal?
We shed some light on this in our three-part series. Part Two: An interview with the “expert on experts”, Caspar Hirschi
Nagra’s deep geological repository is scheduled to go into operation in 2050. What role do experts play in ensuring that such a “project of the century” can be accomplished?
In terms of scientific expertise, the dynamics of long-term projects are very different to acute crises such as the coronavirus pandemic. Acute crises often require quick decisions involving high risks, making it necessary to emphasise the uncertainty and provisional nature of scientific knowledge so that the public understands that knowledge and, accordingly, measures will inevitably change over time. This caused irritation during the pandemic, for example with the mask issue. In the case of a long-term project such as a deep geological repository, however, it can be expected that the planned measures are based on stable and robust knowledge. This makes it all the more important to provide very good reasons when partially new findings make it necessary to change an assessment – for example with regard to the safety assessment for different repository sites. Otherwise, the public can be expected to quickly become irritated here, too.
How should those responsible respond to this irritation?
It is important to explain to the public where scientific knowledge can be expected to remain stable and where it will develop dynamically. This can at least partially alleviate the potential for future irritation. Scientific experts can build trust by committing to communicating new knowledge as soon as it has been confirmed to be reasonably reliable. The key is to create an understanding that science is a process and that its results are not set in stone.
Has the deep geological repository project succeeded in establishing this trust?
As someone only involved from the outside, this is not for me to judge. However, what I found impressive is that this entire process has not taken place behind closed doors in discussions with expert bodies. Regional politicians and the local population have been actively involved. When it comes to decisions that have a major impact on the population and where opinions can differ widely, scientific experts cannot achieve much on their own. They have to be handled by people who enjoy a great deal of trust in the region and political legitimacy. How much experts are trusted depends heavily on whether they are perceived as an independent voice in their field of expertise. If they are seen as Nagra’s scientific spokespersons, they cannot achieve much.
When is an expert independent?
Independence means that the experts involved are not subject to any external influence when forming their scientific opinions and recommendations and have no interest in the outcome of a decision. For example, if an expert were to live at a potential repository site, this would cast doubt over his or her independence. An expert is also more likely to be perceived as independent when there is a clear distance from the political decision-makers.
Are experts neutral?
Science researchers agree that neutrality in science is not possible. Value judgements are always involved, starting with the choice of research topic and scientific discipline. A biodiversity researcher is very likely to prioritise different values than a nuclear physicist. Experts are perceived as honest if they disclose their own values.
About Caspar Hirschi
Caspar Hirschi, born in Zürich in 1975, is Professor of History at the University of St. Gallen. His research areas include the organisation of scientific institutions and the relationship between science and politics today and in the past. Hirschi has been a member of the German Science and Humanities Council since 2014. On behalf of the Swiss Science Council, he and other authors have drawn up recommendations on scientific policy advice in times of crisis. He is a member of the Covid-19 Scientific Advisory Body for the federal and cantonal governments.
What does this mean in concrete terms for experts preparing geological reports for Nagra, for example?
It would be helpful if the geologists involved were to disclose how past and present developments in their discipline have influenced their prioritisation of values. They should also address the fact that geology is closely linked to politics and the economy, from earthquake prevention to the extraction of raw materials, and show how geologists try to assert their independence in the process. If experts reveal how they deal with possible influences on their work and how they protect their scientific independence, they can also expect greater understanding from the affected population.
This would mean, however, that experts constantly have to ask themselves whether they are – consciously or subconsciously – pursuing a political or economic agenda.
Yes, that is part of it. And to address this issue, they, in turn, might also need the advice of experts. I would argue in favour of sociologists or political scientists accompanying long-term projects such as the construction of a deep geological repository. These disciplines deal with precisely such topics, such as the question of how the acceptance of long-term scientific counselling is established and how the experts involved perceive themselves. This kind of support gives experts a kind of second-degree scientific reflection.
Who defines who is an expert anyway?
In science, professional associations often determine who is the leading voice in a particular discipline. But if we look at how scientific consulting works, it is ultimately the decision-making body that determines who is an expert. You only become an expert when laypeople with decision-making authority approach other people and ask for advice. Before that, you are a specialist and operate in the specialist community. Politicians must publicly legitimise their decisions. They are therefore naturally strongly motivated to select people who come highly recognised in the research community.
Is specialised knowledge enough to be a good expert?
Expertise is not limited to imparting specialist knowledge. This involves translating technical language into layman’s language so that laypeople, who have to make decisions or are affected by decisions, can understand what is at stake. You can learn this skill on the job, but there is no such thing as a training course to become an “expert”. Usually, you are simply thrown in at the deep end.
Coronavirus, 5G, Ukraine, nuclear energy: even experts do not always agree on these issues. What causes disagreement among the population?
Dissent in science was perceived as a problem by the public, especially during the pandemic. However, the media also played an unfortunate role in this – especially in Germany – by pitting individual experts against each other. It is important to take a close look: where do the experts disagree? Is it about scientific knowledge? A risk assessment? Or is it ultimately a political question, for example, what can or cannot be expected of the population in a particular region. Scientific dissent is legitimate and normal. It is important to communicate to the public that settling disputes is an important part of the scientific process. Politically speaking, there are many topics where the dissent that runs through the population also runs right through science – nuclear policy is one of them. The polarisation on these topics is so strong that science can only partially have a guiding function.
How did you become an “expert on experts” yourself?
I also had to take the plunge. My first steps as a scientific activist were to speak out in favour of academic career reform. I came back from England as a young historian, was dismayed by the rigid hierarchies at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and then campaigned in the media for academic career reform at Swiss universities. Thanks to the media coverage, I quickly gained access to politics, but I soon learned that I could not make much of a difference in my role as a directly affected activist. At the same time, I started researching the history of scientific expertise. Back then, I had no idea how important this topic would become due to the many crises, but as one after the other occurred, I was regularly asked by the media and politicians to comment on the role of scientific policy advice as an “expert on experts”. That is how I was given this strange title.
Series: Who is an expert?
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